A TV show centred on the life of an early Muslim ruler, touted to be the most expensive series ever made in the Arab world, is causing a stir in Iraq, Egypt and beyond.
The first two episodes of Muawiya, an eponymous 30-part Ramadan series about the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad dynasty, aired over the weekend.
The show, produced by Saudi Arabia-owned MBC, reportedly cost between $75m and $100m, and was filmed in Tunisia.
It was written by Egyptian journalist Khaled Salah and directed by Palestinian-American filmmaker Tarek al-Arian.
Last week, Muawiya was banned from being aired in Iraq over concerns it may provoke sectarian tensions.
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The show has also been criticised by religious figures in Egypt over its depiction of early Muslim figures.
Middle East Eye takes a closer look at the protaganist, and why the show has sparked debate.
Who was Muawiya?
The legacy of Muawiya ibn Abu Sufyan is controversial, particularly among Shia.
Born during the time of the Prophet Muhammad, Muawiya initially rejected the prophet’s message. His parents, Abu Sufiyan and Hind bint Utba, were among the most prominent early adversaries to Islam.
In 630, after the Muslims captured Mecca, Muawiya and his parents converted to Islam.
Muawiya became one of Muhammad’s scribes, and after the prophet’s death, he took a leading role in the conquest of Syria from the Byzantine empire.
Uthman, the third Muslim caliph after Abu Bakr and Umar ibn Khattab, promoted Muawiya to governor of Syria.
When Uthman – a fellow member of the Umayyad clan – was later assassinated by rebels against his rule, Muawiya took up the cause of avenging his kinsmen’s death.
Muawiya opposed the election of Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad and fourth and final caliph in what would come to be known as the Rashidun (rightly-guided) caliphate.
It sparked the first ever civil war in Islam, known as the First Fitna, during which Muawiya and Ali’s forces fought out a stalemate at the Battle of Siffin in 657.
After Ali was assassinated in 661, Muawiya took control of Egypt and declared himself caliph, with Damascus as his capital.
Hasan, the son of Ali, who had briefly assumed the role of caliph after his father’s death, was compelled by Muawiya to abdicate.
Many early sources attribute Hasan’s death years later to a likely poisoning. Muawiya is considered by some to be the likely instigator, in an attempt to remove threats to Umayyad succession.
Under Muawiya’s rule, the Islamic armies marched far and wide, expanding its territories deep into North Africa, Anatolia, Central Asia and modern-day Iran.
He became the first Muslim ruler to have his name inscribed on coins and documents, and, controversially, nominated his son Yazid as his successor.
Up until that point, Muslim rule was not hereditary, and caliphs had been appointed by a small group of senior companions of the prophet.
Muawiya’s death in 680 and the accession of his son Yazid prompted the Second Fitna, during which Ali’s son Husayn was killed at the Battle of Karbala.
While Muawiya is viewed by some as an important companion of the prophet and strong ruler who spread Islam to pastures new, he is viewed by others as a ruthless leader who acted as a king rather than caliph.
Among Shia, he is a controversial figure who fought against Ali and may have poisoned Hasan – two revered figures in the Shia tradition.
Banned in Iraq
As a result of Muawiya’s complicated legacy among some Muslims, the new series was swiftly banned in Iraq.
“The broadcast of historically controversial content may provoke sectarian debates, which could threaten social harmony and disrupt the fabric of society, particularly during Ramadan,” Iraq’s media and communications commission said on Saturday.
The commission instructed MBC Iraq not to air the show, though it can still be accessed through Shahid, the network’s digital platform.
The ban was a long time coming: the show had threatened a diplomatic row between Iraq and Saudi Arabia.
Two years ago, Muqtada al-Sadr, the influential Shia cleric and Iraqi political figure, urged MBC to cancel the show altogether.
Sadr described Muawiya as “the head of sectarianism and the pioneer in abusing the companions of the prophet, the first who disobeyed the imam in his time and splintered from the Islamic unity… and the first one who killed the companions”.
“Airing such a series is contrary to the new and moderate policies that the brotherly Saudi Arabia kingdom has adopted. Thus, we draw your attention. It is not necessary to hurt the feelings of your Muslim brothers all over the world,” he said in February 2023.
Iraqi TV channel Al-Sha’aer threatened that in response to Muawiya, it would produce a show about Abululua Firuz, a Persian man who assassinated Umar ibn Khattab and was later revered by anti-Sunni groups in Iran.
Sadr rejected both shows, stating: “Both series are invalid and incite sedition, as Muawiya does not represent the Sunnis, nor does Abu Lulua represent the Shia.”
Though MBC did not comment, the controversy may have been the reason the show’s release was delayed by two years.
Depiction of early Muslim figures
Aside from fears of stoking sectarian tensions, the show has been criticised for depicting important figures in the life of the Prophet Muhammad.
Reda Abdel Wajid, the head of the media faculty at Egypt’s al-Azhar University, told local media that while al-Azhar was not a regulatory body, it rejected the depiction of companions of the prophet.
A spokesperson for Egypt’s Dar al-Ifta, an Islamic research and advisory body, said that representing historical figures was permissible “on condition that they are presented in a manner befitting their status, and that their biography is not distorted or depicted in a way that diminishes their value”.
However, it added, representing the 10 figures who were promised paradise by the Prophet Muhammad was not permissible.
The Muawiya series depicts two such figures, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib.
On the latter, lawyer Haitham al-Maghribi said he was launching a lawsuit to prevent the series being aired in Egypt due to the depiction of Ali.
A series aired by MBC in 2012 about the life of Umar ibn Khattab, the second caliph, was similarly criticised by religious bodies for its depiction of companions.
Notably, however, senior scholars such as Salman al-Awda and Yusuf al-Qaradawi supported the series and were involved in maintaining its historicity.
In response to criticism about the Muawiyah show, its writer Khaled Salah said he did not aim to present a particular narrative.
“Muawiyah was not just a statesman or a military leader who fought his battles with the sword, but he was a man who was shaped by time as fire shapes iron – harsh when necessary, and gentle when it required deliberation and contemplation,” said Salah.
“We did not write history in black and white. We did not see Muawiya as a ruler only, but as a soul that lived, suffered, triumphed, made mistakes, and then went on to its destiny like all those who came before it.”
