In 1862, an American antiquities dealer was in an Egyptian marketplace, squinting at a scroll. The scroll was written in hieratic, a type of ancient Egyptian cursive, and the dealer, Edwin Smith, wasn’t fluent enough to decode the text.
Smith sensed the scroll had great value, and he also suspected the merchant selling the ancient text didn’t recognize its value. Smith purchased the papyrus and returned to buy additional pieces he later identified as a continuation of the scroll.
Now known as the Edwin Smith Papyrus, this ancient text has given scholars a greater understanding of medical practices in ancient Egypt.
Edwin Smith Papyrus Origins
The exact origins of the Edwin Smith Papyrus aren’t known, but scholars believe that it likely came from a tomb in the Theban Necropolis, a burial site in Luxor. Based on the writing style, scholars initially thought it dated back to 1650-1550 B.C.E. However, some researchers have also argued that it may be a copy of a text created during an earlier time.
Smith was unable to translate the text. However, Egyptologist James Henry Breasted translated it into English in 1930.
After the scroll was translated, scholars realized it was like an ancient Egyptian textbook that instructed readers on how to handle various medical ailments, emergencies, and traumas.
“The document is perhaps best described as a didactic trauma treatise, the oldest known such text in history. It is also credited with containing the earliest scientific writings on rational observations in medicine,” says Roger Forshaw, an honorary lecturer at the KNH Center for Biomedical Egyptology at the University of Manchester in England.
Other ancient texts tend to provide recipes for healing that read more like magic spells than a medical how-to. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, in contrast, is an organized guide that presents a prognosis and then recommended therapy. For the most part, Forshaw says the recommended therapies are rational.
“The Edwin Smith Papyrus follows a logical clinical approach to injuries that is not too dissimilar to the methodology that is practiced today,” Forshaw says.
The sections of the papyrus have a clear title and a procedure for making a diagnosis based on clinical signs. Three prognoses are offered — favorable, uncertain, or unfavorable. Each prognosis then lists a treatment plan.
“This structured and systematic approach demonstrates a degree of sophistication in ancient Egyptian medical practice,” Forshaw says.
Read More: 52-Foot Long Ancient Egyptian Papyrus Discovered
Ancient Egyptian Medicine Insight
The scroll includes 48 case studies. These case studies help scholars understand not just how ancient Egyptians practiced medicine but what they understood about human anatomy.
Case 25, for example, involves resetting a dislocated jaw: “Then you must put your thumb upon (each) of the two rear sections of the forked bones that are (in?) the mandible/lower jaw, in the inside of his mouth. and your two “claws” under his chin. Then you should cause them to fall back so that they are put in their place(s).”
Forshaw says “claws” likely means two fingers, and the procedure is similar as to how clinicians would proceed today.
Other cases, like case six, reveal ancient Egyptians’ sophisticated medical knowledge. In this case, readers are given instructions on how to proceed when faced with a severe head wound that fractured the skull and exposed part of the brain.
“The explicit and detailed anatomical descriptions of the brain and the dura mater membrane enveloping it — whilst also recognizing the existence of cerebrospinal fluid — are quite exceptional for this early date in history,” Forshaw says.
The ancient Egyptians had a more sophisticated understanding of human anatomy, but they were limited in what they could do to treat the patient. Case five, for example, addresses a severe skull fracture with an “unfavorable” prognosis.
The care provider is instructed to put the injured person on bed rest and monitor them, particularly at the beginning when the patient is in a more critical state.
“This approach highlights a humanitarian aspect of ancient Egyptian medical care, demonstrating an emphasis on compassionate treatment even in cases with a poor outlook,” Forshaw says.
Missing Parts of the Papyrus
The papyrus has helped scholars better understand ancient Egyptians’ understanding and practice of medicine. However, there are missing parts of the scroll and ongoing questions that researchers wish they could answer.
The papyrus addresses medical ailments, beginning with the head and then working down the body. The text stops mid-sentence in case 48 at the arms and upper thorax. This means the papyrus only covers one-third of the body and misses major organs in the chest and abdomen.
“The discovery of the missing sections would be an extraordinary breakthrough, potentially offering valuable insights into ancient Egyptian approaches to treating injuries in these regions,” Forshaw says.
Even the intact, translated parts of the scroll have unanswered questions due to scholars’ incomplete understanding of ancient Egyptian medical terminology.
“Many words related to their ‘drugs,’ remedies, and constituents remain untranslated, posing significant obstacles to fully deciphering the text and reconstructing their medical practices,” Forshaw says.
Although scholars still have questions regarding the papyrus and its missing pieces, some researchers have noted that the scroll has succeeded in tying the past to the present. Many of the injuries listed on the papyrus are still seen in emergency rooms across the country, and medical care providers continue to try to help people who are experiencing great injury: “Even across millennia, we face the same challenges,” one physician wrote.
Read More: The Surprising Secrets of Ancient Egypt’s Sacred, Mummified Baboons
Article Sources
Our writers at Discovermagazine.com use peer-reviewed studies and high-quality sources for our articles, and our editors review for scientific accuracy and editorial standards. Review the sources used below for this article:
Emilie Lucchesi has written for some of the country’s largest newspapers, including The New York Times, Chicago Tribune and Los Angeles Times. She holds a bachelor’s degree in journalism from the University of Missouri and an MA from DePaul University. She also holds a Ph.D. in communication from the University of Illinois-Chicago with an emphasis on media framing, message construction and stigma communication. Emilie has authored three nonfiction books. Her third, A Light in the Dark: Surviving More Than Ted Bundy, releases October 3, 2023, from Chicago Review Press and is co-authored with survivor Kathy Kleiner Rubin.
