Archaeological evidence of names holding significance over thousands of years has been uncovered in an interdisciplinary study from multiple Israeli universities, after personal names etched into clay and stone were found within the bounds of the historical Kingdom of Israel.
The PNAS-published study, from researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Tel Aviv University, and the University of Haifa, applied advanced diversity statistics to ancient name data, revealing a stark contrast between kingdoms in biblical times.
The biblical kingdoms of Israel and Judah during the Iron Age II period (between 950-586 BCE) were different in many ways, with different kingdoms catering to different societal norms. Now, by applying diversity tools from ecology to ancient name data, researchers found that the Kingdom of Israel had much greater name variety than the southern kingdom, hinting at deeper social differences.
Led by Ariel Vishne and Dr. Barak Sober of the Hebrew University’s Department of Statistics and Center for Digital Humanities, the study suggests that Israelite society was more open and cosmopolitan, while Judah gradually narrowed its naming conventions, reflecting growing religious centralization and sociopolitical control.
“Names are more than just labels; they are cultural artifacts,” said Sober. “By analyzing naming diversity the way ecologists measure species diversity, we can detect patterns of identity, openness, and change that might otherwise be invisible in the archaeological record.”
Researchers built their database by examining over 1,000 personal names preserved on various archaeological materials; seals, stone, ostraca, storage jars, and more. The same statistical tools used to measure biodiversity gave further insight into the variety of names as well as their distribution among the population at the time.
Decline in name diversity?
The study found that there was a significant decline in name diversity in Judah from the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, coinciding with increased religious and political consolidation. Samaria showed lower name diversity than its outlying areas, whereas Jerusalem had higher diversity compared to the rest of Judah. Researchers believe this was possibly due to an influx in refugees following Assyrian invasions.
“These findings align with archaeological evidence suggesting that the Kingdom of Israel, situated along major trade routes, was more culturally diverse,” said Professor Israel Finkelstein of the University of Haifa, a co-author of the study.
To test the robustness of their methodology, the team applied it to modern name datasets from Israel, France, the United States, Australia, and the UK. Their analysis showed consistent results: name diversity has generally increased since the 1960s, with female names showing greater variation than male ones. More traditional societies tend to exhibit lower name diversity, mirroring the ancient trends observed between Judah and Israel.
“This is the first time that onomastic data has been studied using ecological diversity statistics,” said lead author Vishne. “It allows us to view ancient societies through a more nuanced statistical lens and raises exciting possibilities for studying cultural change across time and place.”
While the surviving data skews toward elite male names—due to the nature of what gets preserved in archaeology—the researchers argue that this still offers valuable insight into broader social dynamics, particularly given the lack of large-scale textual sources from the period.
Ultimately, the study highlights how even ancient names can speak volumes about a society’s openness, hierarchy, and historical trajectory, demonstrating that, in the ancient world as much as today, there’s a lot in a name.
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