In 1960 Marthe Gautier left the lab where she had discovered the genetic cause of Down syndrome and went on to have a successful career as a pediatric cardiologist. For decades, she remained silent as her former colleague Jérôme Lejeune continued to take credit for this pioneering discovery, and history wrote her out of the story—until 2009. On the 50th anniversary of the paper that announced the finding, she decided to set the record straight.
The process of changing history did not always go smoothly. In 2014, at the age of 88, she was set to give a talk and receive a medal at a conference, but the event was canceled hours in advance, and she was given the medal privately the next day., Finally, toward the end of her life, Gautier got the recognition she deserved. Before she died in 2022, she was decorated by the French government for her contributions to science.
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TRANSCRIPT
Lorena Galliot: I’m Lorena Galliot and this is Lost Woman of Science.
This week, we bring you Part 2 of our special series on the late French doctor and scientist Marthe Gautier. In the 1950s, Marthe played a key role in the discovery of the chromosomal origin of Down syndrome. But for 50 years, a male colleague took all the credit.
What happened to Marthe after she was sidelined on a paper with the results of an experiment that she led? And what impact did her groundbreaking research have in the field? All this in today’s episode.
Elizabeth Head: It’s something that till this day I still cite that paper when I write my papers.
Lorena Galliot: That’s Dr. Liz Head. She’s a professor and vice chair for research at the University of California, Irvine. Her research is focused on trying to find ways to treat Alzheimer’s disease in people with Down syndrome. Here, she’s talking about that 1959 paper. The paper offered by Jérôme Lejeune, Marthe Gautier, and Raymond Turpin, in that order. The paper confirmed two things. Down syndrome is a genetic disease, and two, it’s caused by an additional third chromosome in the 21st pair. That’s why it came to be known as Trisomy 21.
Elizabeth Head: In my first sentence of every introduction of every science paper I write, is “Down syndrome is, and it is caused by” and I always cite that one paper. But that paper is rock solid. It’s, it’s held for a very long time.
Lorena Galliot: The paper provided criteria for formal diagnosis. That means if you have an extra 21st chromosome, you have Down syndrome. And there are several reasons why this is important.
Elizabeth Head: The good part of having a diagnosis for a condition is that it becomes recognized by the medical community and the appropriate care can be given to a person with a diagnosis.
Lorena Galliot: Parents of children with Down syndrome could intervene early. They could access resources, and communities, and doctors to provide the best quality of life for their child.
And starting in the mid-1970s, prenatal genetic testing also gave parents a choice. The option of aborting a fetus diagnosed with Down syndrome. Abortion became legal in France in 1975. That wasn’t something that the original research into the cause of Down syndrome could have foreseen.
What the research most certainly did do was open the door for other forms of genetic research, like the kind of work that Liz Head does.
Elizabeth Head: For those of us who are, you know, trying to understand and figure out ways to promote healthy aging and people with Down syndrome. That was a huge discovery that, that really broke the field open for us.
Lorena Galliot: David Wright, the genetic historian we heard from in Episode 1, goes one step further.
Davis Wright: The discovery of the, as it were, the chromosomal causes of the most common form of developmental disability, being identifiable as a trisomy, right, was, was itself something that most people expect to leave to a Nobel Prize. Right? It was that, that groundbreaking.
Lorena Galliot: Today’s episode. Who discovered the cause of Down syndrome? This is Part Two.
Aude Bernheim: Jérôme Lejeune not only took the discovery but also really used it to launch his career.
Lorena Galliot: That’s Dr. Aude Bernheim. She’s a microbiologist who runs a lab at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. She knew Marthe personally.
Aude Bernheim: What happened then is that the whole communication about who had discovered the chromosomal basis of Down syndrome was really made so that everything looked like Jérôme Lejeun had done this discovery by himself, and, and that’s not reflective of the truth.
Lorena Galliot: As we learned in Part One, it was Marthe Gautier who conducted the cell culture experiment that led to the discovery. Her colleague, Jérôme Lejeune, offered to take photographs of the slides, then never showed them to her.
Until months later, all of a sudden, Marthe learned that Jérôme Lejeune and her boss Raymond Turpin were rushing to put out a paper with her findings.
By putting his name first on that groundbreaking paper, Jérôme Lejeune understood what would happen. He knew, and most likely his supervisor Raymond Turpin knew, that the people would assume that Jérôme had led the team that made the discovery. And Jérôme never corrected that assumption, instead, he leaned into it. He went on a media blitz, he attended scientific conferences, he gave lectures, he gave interviews to journalists. He was making sure that the discovery was widely known. And at the same time, he was also raising his own profile, and basically positioning himself as the one who discovered Trisomy 21.
We heard from Jérôme Lejeune’s daughter, Clara, in part one. To Clara, her father’s positioning was entirely appropriate.
Clara Lejeune Gaymard: The thing is that the one who had the intuition, who wanted to go on this path, try to really prove that it was a genetic cause, prove that that was something in the chromosome was Jérôme Lejeune. Of course, he was in the team of Turpin and Turpin let him do. And of course, Marthe Gautier came with an experience of the culture of tissue.
So it’s why he wanted to publish it with their two names, because he was respectful of all the support he get from them too. But the one who was really the inventor of the idea of trying to find in this direction was Jérôme Lejeune.
Lorena Galliot: In any event, what most people think, to this day, is that Jérôme Lejeune was the discoverer of Trisomy 21. Marthe Gautier, for her part, remained silent, and Jérôme’s story became the accepted wisdom. But keep in mind that in the context of 1950s France, it wouldn’t have been easy for a woman doctor, a young woman doctor, to speak out. This is David Wright again.
David Wright: In the European system, if you were to more or less attack that, you know, the senior professor of your unit, you might destroy your, your entire career. Not just your research career, but your clinical. You could be easily blacklisted.
Lorena Galliot: So Jérôme Lejeune went on to dedicate the rest of his academic career and his public life to Down syndrome. The prestige of that 1959 discovery allowed him to obtain a tenured professorship position, sort of skipping over the usual university process.
He became a source of French national pride, proof that France, even devastated by two world wars, could still compete in the scientific world. In 1962, he received the prestigious Kennedy Prize, and he failed to acknowledge Marthe in his acceptance speech.
To complicate matters, Jérôme also became a highly vocal pro-life advocate. He was always a devout Catholic. And when abortion was legalized in France in 1975, and some mothers began testing for Down Syndrome in utero and then aborting the fetus, he became enraged. He made it his mission to fight this. Here’s David again.
David Wright: And he becomes not only the figurehead of, as it were, Down syndrome, but he becomes a figurehead of the pro-life movement in, in France. And a very good friend of John Paul II when he becomes Pope. And so he becomes a very much, a very polarizing figure.
Lorena Galliot: Jérôme remained a polarizing figure until his death from lung cancer in 1994. Two years later, the Jérôme Lejeune Foundation was established to continue his work and his legacy.
And what about Marthe? What became of her? Here’s her great-niece, Tatiana Giraud.
Tatiana Giraud: As a woman at the time and, uh, at the daughter of a farmer and no connection in Paris, so she just could not do anything, so she preferred forgetting about that.
Lorena Galliot: And here’s Aude Bernheim again.
Aude Bernheim: She understood that she would just be put aside and would, would not get anything from that. And so she decided to focus on another field of work where she could make also, groundbreaking progress which was, the beginning of doing, uh, cardio pediatrics. And this was really another passion for us.
Lorena Galliot: Pediatric cardiology took Marthe back to the roots of her medical training. Marthe left Turpin’s team in 1960 and joined a different hospital. She also opened her own private practice in her apartment, and her grandniece, Tatiana, makes clear that she loved the work.
Tatiana Giraud: She had always wanted to be a pediatrician and healing people. She had always wanted to, to care for people.
Lorena Galliot: And Marthe had a big life outside of work, too. She was an artist. She painted vibrant and intricate designs on porcelain.
Tatiana Giraud: Yeah, so she really, uh, loved art, theater, She received a lot of artists, in her flat, and actually she was a, um, a very good friend of Samuel Beckett and, uh, his wife.
Lorena Galliot: Really?
Tatiana Giraud: Yeah.
Lorena Galliot: On top of her art and her friendship with people like the playwright Samuel Beckett. Marthe certainly didn’t give up research. In addition to her work at the hospital, she ended up working at INSERM, which is a French national research institution. She published many papers on, among other topics, congenital heart disease, infant rheumatic fever, and pediatric liver diseases. And she pushed to get more responsibility and more recognition.
When we were reporting this story, I went to the INSERM archives to learn more about Marthe’s research career. Marthe’s files showed that her supervisors were often glowing in their praise of her work. In fact, in one of her evaluations, a supervisor wrote, “The scientific community owes a debt to Marthe Gautier.”
But despite this praise, it turns out that throughout her time at INSERM, starting in 1973, Marthe applied to become a Research Director One, basically the highest research level you can attain in a French National Research Institute. She applied every year until her retirement for 17 years, but she was passed over every single time.
In the later years of Marthe’s career. Evaluators noted that she was up against younger researchers who had access to more modern technologies. She never stopped throwing her hat in the ring. Remarkably enough, she didn’t quit.
Aude Bernheim: One thing that was very strong was her love for science and, and her passion.
Lorena Galliot: Here’s Aude Bernheim again.
Aude Bernheim: And I think the fact that despite everything that happened, she loved her career. She loved her accomplishment.
Lorena Galliot: More after the break.
[Mid-roll]
Lorena Galliot: So for 50 years, this is how things were. Marthe led a respected but lower-profile career. While Jérôme Lejeune was publicly hailed as the discoverer of Trisomy 21. But within French medical circles, another version of the story was quietly circulating for decades.
Marc Brodin: En fait, le milieu clinique …..
Marc Brodin (voice-over in English): Actually, the French medical community respected Martha’s role in the discovery from very early on.
Lorena Galliot: That’s Marc Brodin. He’s a pediatrician, a public health expert, and importantly to this story, a former member of the ethics committee of INSERM, the research institute where Marthe spent so much of her career. Marc met Marthe Gautier in 1974. At the time, he was a young resident at the Kremlin Bicêtre Hospital. And she was a respected cardiologist working closely with Marc’s boss, Professor Daniel Alagille. Marc remembers clinical staff meetings where Marthe was invited to speak as an expert.
Marc Brodin: Le Professeur Daniel Alagille … à chaque fois que …
Marc Brodin (Voice-over in English) In the medical meetings. Professor Daniel Alagille always introduced Marthe as the discoverer of Trisomy 21. For him, there was no ambiguity as to who had discovered what. He knew how it actually happened.
Lorena Galliot: But even if her peers recognized her contribution, for many years, Marthe chose not to speak publicly about the subject, even after Jérôme Lejeune’s death in 1994.
Fast forward 15 years to 2009. It’s the 50th anniversary of the discovery. That year, some of Marthe’s colleagues urged her to write an article telling her side of the story.
And this time, she agreed. After 50 years, Marthe was finally speaking out. In March 2009, the French journal “Médecine Science” published Marthe’s article.
It’s called 50th Anniversary of Trisomy 21, a look back at a discovery. “Médecine Science” was a specialist publication that didn’t have a super wide audience. But, Marthe didn’t pull any punches. She did not describe working closely with Jérôme Lejeune on her experiment. She did remember him dropping into her lab and taking a vivid interest in her work. And she described feeling pushed aside and kept in the dark after Jérôme Lejeune took the slides she had so painstakingly created.
Speaker: I had a sense of what was going on behind the scenes, but I didn’t have the experience nor the authority to confront it. I was too young to know how the game was played. I have no pleasant memories from that time, during which I felt cheated in every way.
David Wright: What Gautier objected to was Lejeune, convincing to, who knows who made the decision to put Lejeune first and Gautier second?
Lorena Galliot: That was David Wright again. He’s talking about that famous 1959 paper. The one remarked was listed as second author, and her name was misspelled.
David Wright: That’s what she objected to. Not that Lejeune shouldn’t be on necessarily, he did the photography art, you know, but, but that, you know, that she should have been first author.
Lorena Galliot: The timing of Marthe’s exposé in 2009 is worth untangling. Two years earlier, Jérôme Lejeune’s supporters had petitioned then Pope John Paul II to declare the scientist venerable in the Catholic Church. They cited his pro-life stance, his dedication to disabled patients, and the exemplary life he led. To be named venerable or beatified in the Catholic Church puts someone on the path to sainthood. If Jérôme Lejeune was beatified, people could pray to him. And if their prayers were answered and it was established that Jerome had caused a miracle, he could be declared a saint.
This did not go down well with a number of people. Remember the Scottish scientists that Lejeune and Turpin had rushed to beat when they first published the discovery in 1959? They wrote to the Vatican to voice their concerns.
Speaker (reading): We write to you to draw your attention to some of Jérôme Lejeune’s actions, which we believe should be taken into account when consideration is being given to his beatification. When Professor Lejeune first spoke of his findings at a conference in Montreal, he did not mention the part that Madame Gautier had played and claimed all the credit for himself.
Furthermore, when he was presented with the Kennedy Prize in 1962, he again failed to acknowledge the crucial role that Madame Gautier had played in this important discovery, thus again claiming all the credit for himself. We believe that to make such an error on at least two separate occasions suggests that the omissions were deliberate, and had the sole purpose of enhancing his own reputation.
Lorena Galliot: Jérôme Lejeune’s supporters, however, never gave up. And in 2021, Jerome was declared venerable in the Catholic Church by the new Pope, Pope Francis.
Once Marthe decided to speak out in 2009, she continued to be vocal. Her long-time reserve disappeared. And she began telling more and more people about how she felt robbed of her discovery.
David Wright: Gautier would come out and say, Hey, let’s wait a second here, right? Um, he was not, and I mean, I don’t mean to be too flippant. He was not the saint that some people are painting him out to be. Uh, and his life was more complicated.
Lorena Galliot: This brings us to 2014, back to the incident you heard about at the beginning of Ppart Oone when Marthe lost all of her hair. In January, 2014. The French Society of Genetics decided to honor Marthe for her lifetime contributions to scientific research.
They were going to present her with a medal at a big conference in Bordeaux. Marthe, then 88 years old, was set to give a speech about what happened, about how she was overlooked. But it was not to be.
At 7 a.m. on the morning of the conference, there was a knock on the door of Marthe’s hotel room. Two bailiffs were waiting to speak with her in the lobby. Marthe hurried down, and these two stern-looking men tell her and the conference organizers that they were court-mandated to record Marthe’s speech.
Aude Bernheim: There were some, foundation called Fondation Le Jeune that decided to send people, to officially record what would be said, during this conference, and that could be used, against Marthe Gautier.
Lorena Galliot: Aude Bernheim again. Her father, Alain Bernheim, was the president ofpresident. of the French Society of Genetics at the time this all went down.
Aude Bernheim: It was really to intimidate everyone, and to intimidate her, and they really had, have tried hard to actually push and and fight back so that her recognition and contribution would not be known.
Lorena Galliot: The organizers decided to cancel Marthe’s talk on the morning it was supposed to happen. They were worried about the legal recourse.
Aude Bernheim: There was really a sense of like, this has never happened. What’s going on? We don’t understand. And so, so that was really problematic.
Lorena Galliot: Instead of a grand award ceremony, Alain Bernheim presented the medal to Marthe in her apartment the following day. But Marthe was deeply, deeply upset.
Aude Bernheim: Why, why would they do that now? Why would they do that to me again, you know? Getting indeed silenced again, was really hard to take.
Lorena Galliot: And this, according to her great niece, Tatiana, is what caused Marthe’s hair to literally fall out. And she wore a wig for the rest of her life. But as devastating as this incident was to Marthe, the Lejeune Foundation’s effort to silence her didn’t succeed. In fact, it completely backfired.
Aude Bernheim: I really do feel that this specific event was the basis of really the story exploding and, and getting known. And, uh, it was so shocking, many media Reported on the fact that bailiffs were sent at a scientific conference to prevent someone from telling her story. Why, why would you want to prevent an 88-year-old woman from getting a prize and, and speak about how she discovered or helped discover this, this amazing thing? In what world is that okay?
Lorena Galliot: Not long after this happened. The French Institute INSERM asked its ethics committee to investigate the authorship dispute between Marthe Gautier and Jérôme Lejeune.
The person tasked with leading the investigation was Marc Brodin, who we heard from earlier in the episode.
Marc Brodin: Donc moi j’ai pu, pour refaire l’histoire …
Marc Brodin (Voice over in English): In order to reconstruct the story in 2014, I was able to meet with Dr. Aicardi, who was then still alive.
Lorena Galliot: Here, Marc is talking about one of the people he interviewed during the investigation. A retired doctor named Jean Aicardi. Dr. Aicardi turned out to be a key witness. He was one of the other two French fellows who traveled to Harvard on a scholarship in the same year as Marthe Gautier. And when they returned, he also happened to get a position on Raymond Turpin’s team in Paris, along with Marthe.
So he saw her work. Dr. Aicardi was able to confirm two key things. One, Marthe Gautier learned advanced cell culture techniques during her time at Harvard.
And two, at her return in France, she was the only person on Turpin’s team with any knowledge of the technique and the only person able to conduct the first chromosomal experiments.
Marc Brodin: La conclusion pour le comité d’éthique. ….
Marc Brodin (Voice over in English: So, the Ethics Committee’s conclusion was that Marthe Gautier was a decisive person in the discovery of the extra chromosome. Simply, because others on the team did not yet have the skill to do it. There was no ambiguity in that regard.
Lorena Galliot: The report was clear. Given the context of the time, Marthe’s contribution to the discovery. discovery Of the extra 21st chromosome was more significant than that of Jérôme Lejeune.
Marc Brodin: Si Monsieur Lejeune a pu …
Marc Brodin (Voiceover in English) Jérôme Lejeune helped divulge divulge this important discovery. But it’s important to keep in mind that if Marthe Gautier hadn’t discovered that chromosome in the first place, Monsieur Lejeune, at the time, would have had nothing at all to talk about.
Marc Brodin: En fait, le comité …
Marc Brodin (Voice over in English): In fact, what the Inserm committee tried to do was to calm the debate. By restating clearly that discoveries are hardly ever a solitary achievement. They’re the work of a team.
Lorena Galliot: That’s absolutely true. Most scientific discoveries are a team effort. Here’s geneticist Liz Head on that point.
Elizabeth Head: You have to have somebody who’s asking the question, you have to have a group that knows how to answer it, and then you still need one more piece, which is somebody looks at the data and says, oh, that is meaningful. That is important.
Lorena Galliot: Liz raises one of the trickiest questions in this story, perhaps one that can never be answered. And that is, who on Turpin’s team in 1958 first looked at the cell cultures that Marthe Gautier produced and thought, Oh, this is meaningful. Jérôme Lejeune’s daughter, Clara Gaymard, is absolutely certain it was her father.
Clara Guymard: The thing which is, it’s very important is that this believing that there were something genetic and something about chromosome was really the what Jérôme Lejeune was believing in. Trupin was a bit sceptical. Marthe Gautier was helpful, but she was a cardiologist. And we don’t understand why it comes 50 years after. With the idea that she was the one who made the discovery because she was not in genetics and she was not interested in it afterwards.
Lorena Galliot: There are certainly examples throughout history of important discoveries where one person did the work and another person saw the significance. It happens. In 1938, for example, physicist Lise Meitner realized that her collaborator Otto Hahn had split the atom, while he at first did not.
But Marthe would argue that she fully knew the significance of what she was working on. Otherwise, why would she have gone to such lengths, even taking out a personal loan to fund her research? And it’s worth noting that the descendants of Raymond Turpin, Marthe and Jérôme’s boss, also publicly took issue with the claim that Lejeune had the initial intuition.
In 1996, their lawyer sent a letter to the Lejeune Foundation demanding that they stop describing Lejeune as the sole discoverer of Trisomy 21.
So we’re left with two versions of the story. The one in Clara’s mind, where her father had an intuition, a vision, and Marthe Gautier simply brought the technical knowledge to execute it.
And the other version, the one that Marthe repeated again and again later in her life.
How, when she was a young scientist at the start of her career, she gave her money, her own blood, and countless hours of painstaking research to advance a
groundbreaking discovery, only to be sidelined by an ambitious male colleague.
David Wright: As a historian, it really is an interesting challenge. It’s, it’s conflicting accounts, whereby each of the protagonists has a, has a different take on, you know, some of the specifics are not easy to reconcile. That’s my most polite way of putting it.
I want to be fair and balanced, and fair to, you know, fair to Lejeune, right? I’m not here to like attack the legacy of Lejeune. I don’t, never knew him personally, you know, and clearly he had some contribution, but to do my best as a historian, to be fair and balanced. But, you know it’s hard as a historian not to look back and say, given the hierarchy, the culture of scientific research, the patriarchal nature of, of medicine at that time, this seems pretty likely the things she’s describing.
Lorena Galliot: Maybe it was the patriarchal nature of medicine and scientific inquiry in France that made Marthe keep quiet for so many years. That seems believable on the one hand, and very unfair on the other. But the fact remains that she did speak up, even if it was decades later. And when she did, the scientific community was ready to listen.
In November 2018, Marthe Gautier woke up to a piece of unexpected news.
Marthe Gautier: La nièce me réveille …
Marthe Gautier (Voice over in English): My niece woke me up one morning and said, you’ve got an email, a new email, you’re now a commander. I said, what? What are you talking about? What’s this commander business?
Lorena Galliot: That’s Marthe, describing the moment she got the news that she was being appointed to the rank of Commander of the National Order of Merit, France’s highest civilian distinction. The efforts of her friends and colleagues to fully recognize her contribution to science finally paid off. She was 92 by then, and much less active.
She received the award in a small ceremony in her Paris apartment. Aude Bernheim was there.
Aude Bernheim: With this award, it was recognizing that as the French society in general had somehow understood they owed something to Marthe, and that they recognized that she had made an amazing contribution to science.
Lorena Galliot: Marthe died four years later at the age of 96.
Aude Bernheim: What I I actually choose to remember is that behind all of these great discoveries, usually there are women scientists that somehow just want to do great science, and, and that are passionate, and that if we would not prevent them from doing that, scientific progress would just be even greater.
Lorena Galliot: Today in the U.S., the majority of clinical geneticists are women. But as in most medical fields, they remain a minority in senior leadership positions. Aude Bernheim hopes that recognizing pioneers like Marthe will inspire more women to pursue the highest levels of research. As for Marthe, the recognition may have simply brought her a sense of closure in the final years of her life. Here’s Marthe’s great niece Tatiana Giraud again.
Tatiana Giraud: I think she was really happy that finally her discovery was recognized. Yeah. I’m very proud.
Marthe Gautier: Maintenant je suis reposée
Marthe Gautier (Voice-over in English): Now, I finally got my due. My work is in the light.
Marthe Gautier: C’est dans la lumière.
Lorena Galliot: This has been Lost Women of Science. This episode was produced by Senior Producer Sophie McNulty and me, Lorena Galliot. Hansdale Hsu was our sound engineer. Lexi Atiya was our fact-checker. Our thanks go to Co-Executive Producers Amy Scharf and Katie Hafner, Senior Managing Editor Deborah Unger, and program Manager, Eowyn Burtner.
Thanks also to Jeff DelVisio at our publishing partner, Scientific American. Audio of Marthe’s interviews is from INA, the French Audio Visual Institute, and from Wax Seance, a nonprofit promoting women in science.
We’re grateful to Hélène Chambefort and the archivists at INSERM. To the Jérôme Lejeune Foundation. As well as to Laurent Apfel and Céline Curiol for their help with this episode.
Lost Woman of Science is funded in part by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the Anne Wojcicki Foundation. This podcast is distributed by PRX. You can learn more about our initiative at lostwomenofscience.org. And don’t forget to click on that all-important omnipresent, donate button. Follow us on Facebook and Instagram @LostWomenofSci. That’s @Lost WomenofSci. Thank you so much for listening. I’m Lorena Galliot.
Senior Producer and Host
Lorena Galliot
Senior Producer and Sound Designer
Sophie McNulty
Guests
Elizabeth Head
Elizabeth Head is vice chair for research at the Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine at the University of California, Irvine.
David Wright
David Wright is Professor and Canada Research Chair in History and Classical Studies at McGill University.
Aude Bernheim
Aude Bernheim is the director of the Molecular Diversity of Microbes laboratory at the Pasteur Institute, Paris, and a member of France’s Presidential Council of Science.
Clara Lejeune Gaymard
Clara Lejeune Gaymard is the daughter of Jérôme Lejeune. She is the former President/CEO of General Electric France and co-founder of the innovation investment group RAISE, as well as the author of books including Life Is a Blessing: A Biography of Jerome Lejeune—Geneticist, Doctor, Father, first published in French in 1997.
Marc Brodin
Marc Brodin is a public health physician and former member of the ethics committee of France’s National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM).
Tatiana Giraud
Tatiana Giraud is Marthe Gautier’s grand-niece. She leads the National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) Evolutionary Genetics and Ecology team, University of Paris-Saclay.
Further Reading
Down’s Syndrome: The History of a Disability. David Wright. Oxford University Press, 2011
